The Feudal System

The monarch holds the highest feudal rank in the system and serves as the sovereign ruler of a state or country, such as a king or queen. As the ultimate landowner, the monarch truly owns the land and grants portions to lower nobles in exchange for their loyalty and services. During medieval times, the monarch wielded significant power. However, following the French Revolution and subsequent changes in Europe, power became more distributed, ending the era of absolute sovereign rule by monarchs.

The title of Duke is the highest hereditary rank below the monarch, typically associated with ruling over a duchy. Dukes often wielded significant autonomous power over their territories and owned extensive lands and vassals. During medieval times, the title of Duke held considerable influence. However, similar to the monarchy, the distribution of power shifted after the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era in Europe, rendering the title increasingly symbolic. Despite this, dukes often continued to possess vast amounts of land and subjects.

The title of Landduke shares many similarities and was not very common in Europe. Particularly in Germany and the Netherlands, the terms Landduke, Landgraf, or Landgraaf were used. These titles held a status similar to that of counts or earls but with a higher standing in the Holy Roman Empire, and they controlled vast amounts of land and vassals. The title lost its power during the French Revolution and the subsequent French period in Europe. Today, it holds a more symbolic or honorific status, although those who hold the title may still own significant land and have subjects.

The title of Marquess ranked just below that of a Duke. Originally, a Marquess governed marches, or border territories, which were militarily significant. This importance contributed to their high rank in the feudal system. However, after the French Revolution and the subsequent changes in Europe, the title became largely ceremonial and served more as a social distinction. It was no longer limited to border territories but could apply to any type of land, such as a neighbourhood or district. Like Dukes, a Marquess owned a significant portion of land and had many subjects.

The title of Baron was a lower rank of nobility, often granted to individuals who held a barony. Barons managed estates or villages, such as manors, and owed fealty to higher nobles, although they could command knights. Like other noble titles, the rank of Baron lost much of its power after the French Revolution and the subsequent changes in Europe. Today, it is primarily a hereditary and ceremonial title. However, Barons may still own land, have subjects, and enjoy social privileges, rents, and sometimes judicial rights.

A Freeman was an individual who was legally free and could own or lease land. They were not bound to the land or to a higher noble. However, they did owe rent or minor services to the area where they or their land was located. Often, Freemen were independent farmers, tradesmen, or prosperous villagers with personal freedom and civic rights. For example, they had the right to participate in collective meetings and were able to cast a vote for new rules or rulers. Although freemen owned land and had certain rights, life was often tough and harsh, and maintaining their title was very uncertain.

A cotter was an individual who lived on a cottage plot, typically possessing just enough land for subsistence farming. They might own a small amount of land, but always less than 0.25 shares. Cotters often worked part-time for a landlord’s estate or other nobility in exchange for a small plot to live on. Generally, cotters were modest tenant farmers who struggled to make ends meet. They had just enough to live, but were very dependent on their landlord or nobility for survival.

A labourer was a worker who did not own land and often worked on farms, estates, or in industries for wages or for basic necessities like food and shelter. Similar to serfs, labourers held the lowest social rank and faced significant struggles, as they were entirely dependent on higher authorities for survival and had limited opportunities for upward mobility. They frequently moved from job to job in an effort to make ends meet. Unlike serfs, labourers had no hereditary ties and often came from abroad seeking work and a better life.

A serf was an unfree peasant bound to the land and under the control of a lord or the nobility. Along with labourers, they held the lowest rank and faced significant challenges in earning a living. Serfs worked on the lord’s land, paid dues, and were not free to leave without permission from their authority. Fortunately, these restrictions were largely abolished during the 1800s. However, their situation remained poor and harsh, with many ending up in workhouses or perishing under extreme conditions.

An aristocrat is a member of the hereditary titled nobility, such as a baron, duke, or monarch. Typically, they own extensive lands, estates, or manors with numerous servants and subjects. Aristocrats often enjoy high social prestige and special privileges or rights. While titles are usually passed down through generations, it is sometimes possible to ascend the ranks and obtain an official title. Since the French era in Europe, the power of aristocrats has declined and become more decentralised. Although many titles are now honorific or ceremonial, most aristocrats still possess significant landholdings.

The gentry is a social class just below the aristocracy. They often possess an old family lineage and estate wealth but do not hold an honorific title. Members of the gentry often include squires, esquires, untitled noblemen, local magistrates, or justices of the peace. Like aristocrats, they own vast amounts of land with servants and subjects, enjoying special rights and sometimes privileges. It is much easier to ascend to the level of the gentry compared to the aristocracy, as it does not require an official title.

The Bourgeoisie, often referred to as the (urban) Middle Class, typically includes business owners, merchants, bankers, lawyers, and industrialists. They generally possess a respectable amount of wealth but do not necessarily own large tracts of land. Additionally, they lack official titles and do not have special privileges or rights associated with their status.

Peasants are small farmers, tenant farmers, or rural villagers who work the land or manage small businesses. They may own small plots of land or rent land from the aristocracy or gentry. Typically, peasants do not possess significant wealth or large tracts of land. Their rights are often tied to the land they inhabit. Despite this, peasants form the backbone of society by providing food and essential goods.

A worker is an urban or rural wage laborer who often works on land or in an industry in exchange for wages or a place to live. They do not own land and are frequently at the lower end of the social hierarchy. Examples of workers include farmhands, factory workers, miners, railway workers, as well as artisans and casual manual labourers. They often reside on the land or near their workplace, or they travel from place to place to earn a living.

Paupers are individuals who are extremely poor and often rely on charity or parish relief. This group typically includes beggars, the homeless, and those living in almshouses or workhouses. Positioned at the bottom of society, they have limited rights and face minimal opportunities for upward mobility. Many remain in poverty throughout their lives.

Judicial rights were the privileges to hold courts and administer justice over people within a specific area or territory. These rights were among the most central feudal privileges, as they provided the holder with legal and economic control over the population. Judicial rights were often granted to towns and cities, as well as to churches and lords who had their own manors and conducted local courts there.

Wall rights were the legal privilege to construct defensive walls, towers, gates, and moats around a settlement. These rights were typically granted to a town or city, but could also be given to a manor, especially if it held strategic defensive interests. In addition to providing security, the fortifications symbolised autonomy and economic power.

The city right was a special legal status granted to a settlement, allowing it to elevate from a village to a city or town. This status provided the settlement with its own rights, privileges, and freedoms. City rights often included the ability to self-govern, judicial rights, economic privileges, and the possibility of fortification and maintaining a militia.

The tax right is the authority granted to the owner of an area, or the area itself, to impose taxes. These taxes could be levied on residents, as well as on products, land, and activities. Originally, the tax right was held exclusively by kings and emperors and exercised by lords and vassals. Later, districts, cities, or their owners also gained the ability to impose taxes. Examples of such taxes include land taxes, hearth taxes, tithes, and tolls.

Minting rights granted the owner of a region the authority to produce their own coins. These rights were often assigned to a district or specific city. Minting rights encompassed the design of coins, the determination of weight and purity of materials, and the collection of seigniorage. Initially, only kings or emperors possessed this right, but over time, it was also extended to local lords, bishops, abbeys, and cities. Occasionally, this led to multiple competing coins circulating within the same territory.

The toll right allowed the owner of an area to levy tolls. These were often placed on important infrastructure, such as crossroads, bridges, and border crossings. Especially significant roads, like the King’s Road, required a higher fee. A toll keeper collected the money and was typically paid from the revenues.

Brew right was the exclusive legal authority to brew and/or sell beer or ale within a designated area. This right was typically held by a lord, monastery, town, or city and could be granted to a specific building or region. Brew right also encompassed the ability to license others to brew in exchange for a fee or to collect taxes or dues on each brewed barrel.

The market rights granted the owners of certain areas, often villages or cities, the authority to host weekly markets and annual fairs, as well as collect revenue from stall rentals and other fees. These rights were typically granted to villages or cities with a specific status and level of wealth. As these markets attracted many people from the surrounding areas, the rights became a significant source of income and increased the attractiveness of a village or city as a place to live.

Participation rights allowed residents of a specific area to attend district or neighbourhood meetings and vote on local regulations and the election of a marker judge or leader. The number of votes was often limited by the number of shares an area possessed. At least 0.5 shares were required to cast a vote in neighbourhoods.

The Hunting right allowed property owners to pursue wild animals, such as deer, boar, hares, or birds, on their land. This hunting right was a significant seigneurial privilege, symbolizing nobility and power. It was often exclusive to lords who owned large estates. A huntsman or park ranger often guided hunts and monitored for illegal poachers. The huntsman was paid by the landowner.

Wind rights allowed the owner of a property, or the property itself, to harness wind for economic purposes, primarily for constructing and operating windmills. These mills were crucial as they were used for grinding, sawing, pumping, and processing materials. Historically, these rights were often reserved for lords, cities, and monasteries, who would then grant them to specific buildings or areas.

Water rights allow the owner of a property, or the property itself, to utilize bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, ponds, or wells for various purposes. These purposes include drawing water, constructing dams, bridges, or weirs, navigation, irrigation, water mills, industrial use, or leisure activities. Fishing is excluded from these rights, as it is governed by a separate fishing right. Historically, these rights were often reserved for lords, cities, and monasteries, who would then grant them to specific buildings or areas.

Fishing rights permit residents of a specific area to fish in common bodies of water, such as rivers, lakes, ponds, or along coastlines. Often, a large communal body of water is divided into designated zones for districts or neighbourhoods, sometimes requiring a fee based on the quantity of fish caught, collected at a nearby fisherman’s hut. The fisherman regularly monitors the area to prevent overfishing and ensure the health of the water bodies. Typically, the fisherman is compensated through a general fee paid by the district or neighbourhood.

Bee rights, often associated with heather rights, allowed residents of certain areas to keep bees on communal lands within their neighbourhood or district. While some individuals managed their own bees, it was common for a resident or worker to oversee the bees in exchange for a fee, which was collectively paid by the neighbourhood or district.

Forestry rights permitted residents of a particular area to utilise common forests for cultivating crops or harvesting forest products like nuts, seeds, mushrooms, and berries. The open spaces created by tree felling were used by the community or district to grow crops collectively. This process was typically overseen by a forest warden, who received a fee from the community.

Heather rights allowed residents of a specific area to cut heather or sods, which were used as bedding in stables and later as fertilizer. Sometimes, the bedding accumulated almost to the ceiling of the farm, leaving just enough room for the animals to stand. Heather typically began to grow after all the trees were removed, as few other plants besides heather and some grasses could thrive. Heather still helped a little bit to prevent sand encroachment, so this issue worsened when more heather was removed, leaving large expanses of drifting sands. The Wester Wüste is an example of a former forest that became a heather field and is now mostly a sand plain due to overfarming, deforestation, and the depletion of trees and heather.

Turf rights permitted residents of a specific area to cut peat from common bogs. Peat was primarily used as fuel for homes and small industries. It was typically found in large bogs, sometimes several meters underground. Often, local residents collaborated to cut the peat, and occasionally a worker was hired to perform the task for a fee, which was collectively paid by the neighbourhood or district.

Wood rights allowed residents of a specific area to cut timber and collect firewood from a communal forest. The number of trees that could be cut depended on the number of shares a piece of land held. Often, the duty to replant trees was associated with this right, requiring at least three times the number of trees cut to be replanted in the same area, thus preventing forest depletion. Due to significant issues with sand encroachment, replanting rules were very strict and frequently monitored by a forest warden. Additionally, a fee had to be paid to the warden by the collective neighbourhood or district for their services.

Grazing rights allowed residents of a specific area to let their livestock, such as sheep, cattle, and goats, graze on communal land. The number of livestock permitted to graze often depended on the number of shares a farm or piece of land held. The livestock was typically managed by a shepherd, who required a fee, often paid by the collective neighbourhood or district.

Tithes were a form of church tax that required individuals to contribute one-tenth (10%) of their annual agricultural produce or income to support the local church and clergy. These tithes could be burdensome and inflexible, especially during poor harvests. They were used to support the parish, maintain the church, and provide relief for the poor.

The common charge was a fixed amount paid to the district, neighborhood, or lord to cover the costs associated with using common land. These costs included fees for the forest warden, shepherd, and fisherman. This system ensured that the expenses for using common land were evenly distributed among the residents of a given area.

People were required to pay taxes for holding or using land, which constituted a significant income stream for the lord or governing authority. These taxes often included a fixed annual sum, payable either in money or as a portion of the harvest, along with tallage and hearth taxes.

Hospitality duty required individuals to offer lodging, food, and other necessities to their lord, his officials, or even the king and other important figures. These duties were typically assigned to buildings located on major roadways, in cities or towns, or at borders. Activities often included feeding and entertaining guests, providing lodging, caring for horses, and offering various services.

Guard duty, a common aspect of military service, involved protecting the land for a specified number of days. Men were tasked with defending local fortifications, keeping watch at night, ringing bells, manning the gates, or going on patrols.

Landowners often had the duty of military service. In exchange for their privileges, they were responsible for protecting their land and its residents. They might also be required to participate in larger military operations under their higher authority. Additionally, they sometimes needed to raise armed men from their land and supply armor, weapons, horses, and attendants.

Corvée labour was commonly associated with manors, requiring residents to work on the lord’s land and maintain it. This was unpaid work and mandatory for everyone living on the land. Some peasants performed weekly corvée work throughout the year, while others were only required to do so on specific days, particularly in the spring or fall.

Maintenance duties include managing the communal areas where the owner resides. This involves maintaining roads, cleaning public spaces, repairing fences, hedges, and ditches, and clearing waterways. These responsibilities apply to every citizen who owns or uses land in a common neighbourhood or district.

The inhabitants of the area have a duty to replant trees in the forest and plant new trees on the open plains to prevent desertification. It must be shown that when a tree has been cut down, at least two more trees have been planted. If a person fails to do so, they will risk a fine.